The Cause of Terrorism

Terrorism is, in the most general sense, the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion. [1] At present, the International community has been unable to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition of terrorism. [2][3] Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (civilians). Some definitions also include acts of unlawful violence and war. The history of terrorist organizations suggests that they do not select terrorism for its political effectiveness. [4] Individual terrorists tend to be motivated more by a desire for social solidarity with other members of their organization than by political platforms or strategic objectives, which are often murky and undefined. [4] The word â€Å"terrorism† is politically and emotionally charged,[5] and this greatly compounds the difficulty of providing a precise definition. Studies have found over 100 definitions of â€Å"terrorism†. 6][7] The concept of terrorism may itself be controversial as it is often used by state authorities to delegitimize political or other opponents,[8] and potentially legitimize the state's own use of armed force against opponents (such use of force may itself be described as â€Å"terror† by opponents of the state. ). [8][9] A less politically and emotionally charged, and more easily definable, term is violent non-state actor[10] ( though the semantic scope of this term includes not only â€Å"terrorists,† while excluding some individuals or groups who have previously been described as â€Å"terrorists†). citation needed] Terrorism has been practiced by a broad array of political organizations for furthering their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments. [11] One form is the use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity for a group, cause, or individual. [12]

The Sound of Writing

I was staring at empty space. I tried to look for the fixed contours on the paper and the silhouette of the pen I was holding. I tried but to no avail. My mind was swimming in an endless array of uneasiness. I was not certain whether I was dreaming or already awake. This was hard, I told myself. I felt a drop of sweat trickling down my cheek. Thomas Edison once said that genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. If he was right then I was on the right track. But doubt was slowly lurking and creeping around me. Was it really this hard to be inspired to write? I just comforted myself by constantly saying what Jean Anouilh once said, that inspiration was a farce that poets had invented to give themselves importance.When I was starting to become a writer, I was not even aware that I was trying to be one. Grade school for me was seventy percent playing and thirty percent dreaming. And my dreams during that time were all about winning an Academy Award or being named as one of the sexiest people in the world. Becoming the next president was also in my mind. But the thought of being a writer was like imagining myself eating salad with an alien in a crater of a moon in one of the planets in the Andromeda galaxy; it never crossed my mind.In a nutshell, when I tried to analyze how I was as a writer in grade school, all I could say was that I was a courageously idiotic writer. An idiot, but brave nonetheless. This was largely due to the fact that everything I had written at that time was not even close to being brilliant or great. All the words I wrote were simply inspired by having the guts to just do it. If there was a paper too difficult to do and a word too hard to define, all I did was to write and write because I believed that everything would be just fine.I was stupid enough to go forth while all hell broke loose and still smiled at the end of the day. I was guided by my own foolish belief I was brave simply because I would not back awa y. This was writing for me in grade school. Writing for me back then was not about being witty or being brilliant. Writing was all about just stroking my pen without regret and without regard for the outcome. However, in a sense, everyone who attempted to write had some ounce of courage. I felt that I was a better writer than the other students not because I wrote well but rather, I wrote braver. And I was braver longer than most. As Ronald Reagan once mentioned, heroes were not braver than anyone else. They were just braver five minutes longer.As I made the transition from grade school to high school, I started to become idealistic. I began having these grand notions of changing the world and eradicating poverty. I was dreaming of winning the Nobel Peace Prize or be named the next Time Magazine’s Person of the Year. This time, I was absolutely clear in becoming a writer. Writing for me during high school was all about greatness. I felt the need to write to impress. I wanted to be witty and brilliant. I wanted everybody to be mesmerized in reading every single word I wrote. When I tried to look back during those days, even when I wrote poorly, I blindly presented my written work of art full of hubris and unafraid. I often compared writing to boxing.As Muhammad Ali would say, to be a great champion, a person had to believe that he was the best. If he was not, he should pretend that he was. This was me in high school. I was the writer who was so full of himself. If a teacher or a classmate did not like what I wrote, I simply told myself that these people did not understand the high level of writing I was doing. I understood myself to be a brilliant and confident writer. In reality, compared to who I was as a writer in grade school, only one thing had changed. If I was a brave and idiotic back then, I was not confident but just cocky in high school. And to my realization, I was still stupid for thinking of how great I was.When I stepped into college, a ren ewed vigour was awakened within me. Maybe I got too tired of being cocky and stupid that I started seeing a new side of me I never saw I had. This time I believed I had transcended from being the good and the better man to the being best man. I was no longer the idiot and stupid writer. I was filled with excitement. I was now the fool. Somehow, the words and lines I were using suddenly all sounded a bit poetic and romantic. I often pondered if I was to be the next William Shakespeare.This time, I was inspired by the others that had gone before me. I wanted to sway the hearts and minds of people with my writing. I wanted to invoke their deepest darkest secrets through my words. I wanted to encapsulate each soul with a stroke of my pen. I longed to see their tears and hear their laughs by my artistry in poetry. I would be that whom which T. S. Eliot described as the genuine poet who could communicate his words before it was understood. And to my shock, I did see their tears and heard their laughs because of what I had written. I saw my professors crying in pain because they could not even bear one more word of my work. I heard laughs not because I was funny, but because my work was hilarious. Despite this, I still continued and persevered. As one of my favourite authors, Richard Bach, would say, a professional writer was an amateur who did not quit.Everything was a bit different after that. Somehow, until to this very day, I would still be idiotic, stupid and foolish. But this time around, I was a wise fool at the least. I had been quoting Edison, Anouilh, Ali, Reagan and Eliot just to name a few thinking that by using their words, I would be a good writer; I would sound better. But I soon realized that writing was about finding my voice.I needed to find my own words. Writing was about knowing and understanding who I was. Thus, I resolved to search for the right words, the right imagery, the right tone and the right sound. However, I always asked myself if there were indeed such things. Then, it hit me. I was so concerned with the way I was writing that I forgot to find my purpose for it. Why did I want to become a writer? The answer was simple. It was because in writing, I offered who I was and not what I had. That sounded right, I told myself. It sounded just about right.

Anticipated Challenges and Planned Responses

This is also a serious matter of all food industries because its good name is at stake. Orion Foods Inc. being a competitive newcomer, will go through big paces to earn the market’s trust, which is too costly. We have to respond to regulatory authorities which provide the compulsory national framework for food or meat hygiene programmes through laws and regulations. Response Hygienic measures are to be taken during the various processing steps in the manufacture of meat products – the Meat Processing Hygiene. This is part of a firm’s Quality Management (QM) based on the following three principles crucial for meat processing operations: * Prevent microbial contamination of raw materials, intermediate (semi-manufactured)goods and final products during meat product manufacture through absolute cleanliness of tools, working tables, machines as well as hands and outfits of personnel. * Minimize microbial growth in raw materials, semi-manufactured goods and final products by storing them at a low temperature. Reduce or eliminate microbial contamination by applying heat treatment at the final processing stage for extension of shelf life of products Fig. *** Microbiological contamination in the meat processing chain Figure *** shows the extent of contamination among meat processing operations, and the possible remedies, if any. If these processes were relinquished, it would highly contaminate meat which is unsuitable for further processing. Final products could be unattractive, tasteless o r shorter in shelf life. In light of this issue, Quality Management schemes are needed. Such schemes have technical and hygienic components. The former encompasses product composition, processing technologies, packaging, storage and distribution. The hygienic aspect, related to meat processes, focuses not only for the final product, but also for the raw materials in various processes. It has two useful schemes: * Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) It follows general hygienic rules and applies recognized hygienic principles as well as laws and regulations issued by the competent authorities, referring to meat and meat products, equipment, Premises and personnel. GHP schemes are not factory specific, they apply to all types of meat plants. They are intended to establish and maintain acceptable hygienic standards in relevant meat operations. * Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) HACCP are factory and product specific strictly sanitary control schemes that shall prevent, detect, control and/or reduce to save levels accidentally occurring hazards to consumers’ health. Despite GHP in place, accidental hazards cannot be ruled out and may occur at any processing step of the individual meat product. Specifically for meat processing plants, such hazards may be provoked by failures such as: * batches of incoming raw meat materials with abnormal tissues or * heavy contamination, * breakdowns in refrigeration, * failure in cooking/sterilization operations, * abnormal pH or a * in raw or finished products, * errors in levels of application of * curing salts and other additives, * technical problems in sealing of * vacuum packages or cans with * the risk of recontamination. Anticipated Challenges and Planned Responses This is also a serious matter of all food industries because its good name is at stake. Orion Foods Inc. being a competitive newcomer, will go through big paces to earn the market’s trust, which is too costly. We have to respond to regulatory authorities which provide the compulsory national framework for food or meat hygiene programmes through laws and regulations. Response Hygienic measures are to be taken during the various processing steps in the manufacture of meat products – the Meat Processing Hygiene. This is part of a firm’s Quality Management (QM) based on the following three principles crucial for meat processing operations: * Prevent microbial contamination of raw materials, intermediate (semi-manufactured)goods and final products during meat product manufacture through absolute cleanliness of tools, working tables, machines as well as hands and outfits of personnel. * Minimize microbial growth in raw materials, semi-manufactured goods and final products by storing them at a low temperature. Reduce or eliminate microbial contamination by applying heat treatment at the final processing stage for extension of shelf life of products Fig. *** Microbiological contamination in the meat processing chain Figure *** shows the extent of contamination among meat processing operations, and the possible remedies, if any. If these processes were relinquished, it would highly contaminate meat which is unsuitable for further processing. Final products could be unattractive, tasteless o r shorter in shelf life. In light of this issue, Quality Management schemes are needed. Such schemes have technical and hygienic components. The former encompasses product composition, processing technologies, packaging, storage and distribution. The hygienic aspect, related to meat processes, focuses not only for the final product, but also for the raw materials in various processes. It has two useful schemes: * Good Hygienic Practices (GHP) It follows general hygienic rules and applies recognized hygienic principles as well as laws and regulations issued by the competent authorities, referring to meat and meat products, equipment, Premises and personnel. GHP schemes are not factory specific, they apply to all types of meat plants. They are intended to establish and maintain acceptable hygienic standards in relevant meat operations. * Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) HACCP are factory and product specific strictly sanitary control schemes that shall prevent, detect, control and/or reduce to save levels accidentally occurring hazards to consumers’ health. Despite GHP in place, accidental hazards cannot be ruled out and may occur at any processing step of the individual meat product. Specifically for meat processing plants, such hazards may be provoked by failures such as: * batches of incoming raw meat materials with abnormal tissues or * heavy contamination, * breakdowns in refrigeration, * failure in cooking/sterilization operations, * abnormal pH or a * in raw or finished products, * errors in levels of application of * curing salts and other additives, * technical problems in sealing of * vacuum packages or cans with * the risk of recontamination.

The Impact of Keynesianism on Macroeconomic Policies of a State Essay

The Impact of Keynesianism on Macroeconomic Policies of a State - Essay Example This paper offers comprehensive review of the successful applications of Keynesianism concepts in the macroeconomic policies of different countries. Also fundamental changes in the macroeconomic methodology, introduced by Keynes is under consideration It is clear that to try and characterize a Keynesian policy regime is very difficult. Most authors concur in seeing the policies pursued in early postwar Britain as deserving that name, with however much qualification. Perhaps the best term is simple or hydraulic Keynesianism Simple Keynesianism is a term employed by Alan Booth to describe how the very broad agenda of 1930s Keynesianism was narrowed, by going through the Whitehall machine in the later years of the war, so that by the late 1940s the Keynesian program focused primarily on the simple manipulation of aggregate demand. This program did not have much impact on policy in the early postwar years because of the government's emphasis on controls and planning, but after 1947 it became more important as fiscal policy displaced physical controls. In broader perspective, the impact of this regime in creating the concurrent period of full employment has been much debated. An early postwar generation tended to see a direct line from Keynesian theory to Keynesian policy to full employment. A one-sentence summary of the existing literature on the Keynesian revolution in economic policy with regard to Britain in the 1951-64 period would suggest that "much ado about nothing" would be a considerable exaggeration; but the positive benefits to the economy of this regime have to be set clearly in the context of international boom that characterized this period, a boom in which countries with variant policy regimes participated.

Different Aspects of Ecotourism Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Different Aspects of Ecotourism - Case Study Example Different languages are spoken. Municipalities also register an inevitable growth and they have to provide transportable roads lighting the roads, similarly and should be committed to provide amenities of international standard to ecotourism and also for its sustenance. Ecotourism is no more permitted, limited to a particular part of the world. It is exchanged in order to serve the public with the latest technology. The globe is no bigger. Ecotourism represents a single economy. Because of ecotourism there is conspicuous change with the social life industries. One shall meat and come across different rest of different nationals represent at one place. Different sets of different nationals represent diversified cultures, different languages are spoken at one and the same place, and at one and the same time. They come to know each other from a closer proximity. The intimacies develop; relationships pave way for greater understanding. The social pavilion of life is set to rolling. Broader outlook develop into more knowledgeable and understanding environment. There will be a great impact on the urban sociology patterns of life. The world becomes a small place respectively inevitable economical growth, a pleasant knowledge based environment. The world is no bigger, thoughts of seeing the world; the globe on a huge unknown has become so small so much can be felt immensely. T third world, joyous frivolous, sensible, knowledgeable, cultured by urban socialites will cherish. The development may fold big colonies. A lot of big industries and big companies will enter into the market to cater to the needs of the conglomeration. The development shall develop many folds. The economy of the country, government organizations and private sectors will make a rudimental change. Mainly the cities will develop into a small globe with multi faced development in industries and corporate. May be the chief architect of the ecotourism to take enormous pairs to create and design the super structure of the third world. Globalization has its own effects on every aspects of technology. Ecotourism has changed the way urban socialist use to link and express their thoughts. Of course wealth is also acting as a catalyst for the change in the thinking and living of the urban individuals. The new meaning of sociology is slowly changing, to be more precise it is altering the essence of socialist thinking. Considering ecotourism as a development, every development will have its own pros and cons. It has both positive and negative and results on all aspects of human life. The same citizens who use to think and analyze in a modest manner has changed their way of analysis and started comparing with the good and bad. The socialist thinking, which was confined to the small regions on earth, has now crossed the boundaries and reaching out to the world and sharing views they're by bringing like-minded people to think and work with unity. This development is mostly used negatively. For example tourism, this is an ideal example for the developmenet of the globalization. In the developed countries the pollution levels being very less and also due to maintaining the green belt the need for more greener pastures is very less demand and hence eco tourism and its sustenance is not of very high important to the people visiting the places

A Plague Upon Us Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

A Plague Upon Us - Assignment Example First of all, it is very important to identify the primary case and find out the where the disease started from. This can be done by studying the epidemiological statistics of the affected areas such the number of people affected and the mortality rate. Also, it very important here to understand the Ice Berg phenomenon which helps identify cases with no signs and symptoms. It is also important identify those at risk e.g. family, close relatives and those who have been in contact with the affected patients. It is important to identify the causative agent of the disease, find out its incubation period and quarantine those at risk atleast for the incubation period of the disease. Development of a vaccine just in case a patient comes to US carrying the disease and causes an epidemic. Blood, Urine, stool and sputum sample of the affected patients should be studied to find out the causative agent and develop proper medications against it. Also, finding the vector and eradicating it in the country is necessary to avoid an epidemic in the

History and Contexts of Jeans Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

History and Contexts of Jeans - Assignment Example I had always admired my elder brothers and sister and thought how smart they were in their jeans, which for some reason were always blue or a shade of it; my main attraction to jeans has probably not changed since my pre-teen years. I could get into as much mischief as I wanted and they never really got very dirty, in addition, no matter how many trees and fences I scaled on my knees, they always remained intact. Their universal functionality is remarkable; I can go to class in them, and when I am out for fun either hiking or mountain climbing they come in hardy, perfectly. Besides even when they get dirty, I do not have to rush them into the washing machine, indeed there are people who like them being dirty and its thing with them; so much so that fashion houses have come up with â€Å"dirty jeans† to give the impression of roughness, freedom. For purposes of this reflection assignment, I decided to stay away from these important items of clothing for a week to appreciate the vital role they played in my life; however, I faced a significant challenge. In my closet, I hardly had a single item of clothing that was not Demin or Levis, I had to settle for cotton, and corduroy pants that I only ever wore in case I had to attend very formal gatherings. Therefore, in order to gain a better understanding of my exercise, it would be beneficial to go first over the history and social significance of jeans from a universal point of view for some hindsight. At the peak of the gold rush in California in 1853, 24-year-old German Levi Strauss, a refugee moved from New York to San Francisco with the aim of joining his brother in the dry goods business and opening a branch there. He arrived with a spade pick hammer and a bale of brown sail fabric that was intended to make tents and wagon covers; however, this did not go as he had planned; he identified a niche in the gold mining industry.  

Applied Logic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Applied Logic - Assignment Example This is because the individual who utilizes their free will do not necessary need constructed law for them to act responsible. In supporting this, we can argue that individual with free will are self-determined and accountability of their actions. This people also are capable of overcoming outside force hence enabling them to valid reasoning. For that reason, we can say free will is essential at helping us comprehend that we are in control of choice we made in life and thus our destiny. Hence, individual must be capable of thinking free and decide free without being constrained by certain external factors. Human beings have the capability of thinking free and decide free compared to other animal (Lynch pg. 132). Besides this, and individuals can claim accountability for their actions, and this makes human uniqueness. Hence, free will are much interrelated with applied logic as free will is the foundation of applied logic as it helps individuals to be self-determined and accountability of their actions. The concept of reality has been controversial since the times of great philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle particularly due to the continuous dominance of perceptions in the reasoning process as individuals strive to identify and understand what is real. Reality can be defined as the totality of all things including events, both observable and non-observable phenomena as well as actual and conceptual structures (Simon 01). In deliberating ontological matters, analytical philosophers circumvent the use of the term â€Å"real† since there is an overall argument that reality is what one can get away with, and it is significantly influenced by our perception. Simply put, it is what the world vision endeavors to map, whether based on personal or communal human experience. In lieu of this, there is no objective reality; it is subject to personal interpretation since our cultural and

Management accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Management accounting - Essay Example The company has had a history of high turnover and this is based on the fact the employees were not feeling motivated under the current payment scheme. For instance, the largest production center, which has 75 employees, was paying the employees just 9040 while under the new scheme the employees are going to be paid more salary at 10250. According to Kline (2010), the increase in salary will motivate the employees to work extra harder. Several motivation theories also point out that better remuneration is key to motivation of employees. When employees are paid salary, which is commensurate with their input at the organization, they will become more productive which in turn boosts the competitive edge of the company irrespective of the industry in which it operates. The cost of high turnover is an indication that the employees are not motivated. Moreover, it is a costly affair to the company because the cost of replacing workers, which have exited the company, is a huge expense, which eats into the profitability of the company. On the other hand, the new hourly pay rate is also cost effective because under the new hourly rate, the electronics department will pay less to employees. Prior to the new scheme, the total cost incurred on employee salary for the three employees, Ewelina, Danesh, and Sarah. For instance, under the new hourly rate the company will pay $810 less to the employees because previously the paid  £4522.2 but under the new hourly rate the pay is  £ 3712.5. Siddiqui (2006) asserts that the sole objective of operating a business is to make profit, which is achieved through increased revenues and reduced cost. The fact that the company will register less expenses in salaries means that it will improve its profitability hence the new hourly pay scheme is a welcomed

Italian Hours Essay Example for Free

Italian Hours Essay Italian Hours, Henry James’s most acclaimed collection of travel stories written between 1882 and 1909, is a very interesting piece of travel literature. However, it does much more than a typical work in the genre would do, that is describing author’s experiences in a foreign, usually exotic, country. Instead, Italian Hours can be seen as an important document from a historical and anthropological perspective, since it catalogues living conditions, attitudes, customs and traditions of Italian people at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. There are other prominent examples of travel literature, such as Tocqueville’s Journey to America, which provide in-depth explorations of cultural idiosyncrasies and social organization of different societies; Italian Hours should be seen as one of the works in the latter category. James’s opinions on various matters are all more interesting for the reason that his perspective, as of an American writer and tourist, is â€Å"an embodiment of modernity by definition† (Manolescu-Oancea 2010, para. 1), while Italy is conventionally regarded to be a country that has entered the period of modernity later than other major European powers. In the subsequent paragraphs, a number of examples of the aforementioned will be presented. It is necessary to keep in mind that James’s work touches upon a wide variety of philosophical topics, which are all very intriguing yet unfortunately cannot be covered in this essay due to space constraints. This essay will focus primarily at James’s interpretation of social conditions, developments, and debates in Italy of the aforementioned period. The concluding section will briefly discuss the place of Italian Hours among other works of travel literature set in Italy. Along with describing natural beauties and historical sites of Italy, James devotes significant attention to analyzing people’s daily lives, which allows for a deduction about social structures that existed in Italy of those times. For instance, when describing Sienna, James (2008) talks of it as of a city that is still in the 14th century, with numerous and rich nobility that is â€Å"perfectly feudal and uplifted and separate† (p. 242). There is no middle class, or bourgeoisie; instead â€Å"immediately after the aristocracy come the poor people, who are very poor indeed† (James 2008, p. 42). A great divide between rich and poor has been very characteristic of Italy of the late 19th and early 20th century. The miserable situation of poorer Italians is exacerbated by the government that wields unreasonably high taxes. Upward social mobility is a rare phenomenon, and most Italians born outside of the upper classes were expecting a life of struggle and destitution . When recollecting his time in Venice, James writes that Italians’ â€Å"habitations are decayed; their taxes heavy; their pockets light; their opportunities few† (James 2008, p. 13). It is necessary to keep in mind that the unification of Italy occurred quite late in the 19th century. A lot of problems remained unresolved following the unification, ranging from economic deprivation to epidemics of fatal disease. Most researchers name â€Å"the huge material gulf between north and south† (p. 168) as one of the most pressing problems of the time: previously Austrian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia were more developed then southern provinces like Sicily. The following statistics give a fairly comprehensive picture of the level of economic development in the immediate aftermath of the unification: In 1870s the primary sector [agriculture, mining and forestry] accounted for 62 percent of total employment against less than 50 percent for France, Germany and the USA. For the UK the figure was only 22. 7 percent. Most of the industrial development was concentrated in very few areas, namely Lombardy, Piedmont and a few firms in the region of Naples† (Faini Venturini 1994, p. 74). Yet the disparities in life quality between different provinces of Italy are not salient in James’s writings. Keen on noticing regional differences, the author of Italian Hours speaks of Italian people as generally poor, although income gap becomes more and more extreme as one moves southwards. Poor economic conditions have resulted in mass emigration of Italians to other country, mostly to the United States, which seems particularly ironic in the context of James’s observations about Italy and America. James (2008) describes Italians as simple and unpretentious; he writes of them as of people that â€Å"have at once the good and the evil fortune to be conscious of few wants† (p. 3). However, early modernity has already associated sophistication with having a variety of needs that are hard to satisfy. In accordance with these criteria, Italians might come across as being less civilized than other peoples, although such view is definitely misguided. Enjoying simple pleasures can be a sign of wisdom and contemplative approach to life; although many of the pleasures Italian cities offer might seem to be â€Å"superficial pastimes† (James 2008, p. 14), they are no less pleasurable from it. Enjoying works by great masters of the past or magnificent nature are some of the activities Italians often indulge in. One of the issues that have been heatedly debated at the times of James’s travels was the question of whether to restore or preserve ancient ruins, and how to do it. In Italian Hours, the author presents his negative â€Å"assessment of the results of renovation in Italian cities and in his criticism of the intrusions of modernity in the cityscape† (Manolescu-Oancea 2010, para. 1). In his opinion, buildings should be seen as humans, having their own lifecycles and histories, and therefore mortal. Moreover, buildings have a unique ability to tell stories of people who have once inhabited them and sometimes even have to atone for their sins: â€Å"Houses not only look like ageing bodies, they also seem to be permeated with the life of their former inhabitants, which lends them a dark human aura, a psyche† (Manolescu-Oancea 2010, para. 6). As with cityspaces, natural landscapes for James are not â€Å"merely a picturesque backdrop for romantic adventure†¦[but are]†¦endowed with some of the richness of symbolic values inherited from great historical events† (Mariani 1964, p. 42). Since the richness of Italian history and nature are so impressive, James notes with regret that so many Italians live in poverty. On the other hand, he believes that being constantly surrounded by breathtaking beauty is a fair compensation; moreover, the peculiarly lighthearted approach to life Italians have helps them cope with daily problems. Although a lot of criticism of social reality of the late 19th century and early 20th century is present in James’s text, a comparison with his own country, America, is usually to the disadvantage of the latter. In Monte Mario outside Rome, James (2008) observes â€Å"the idle elegance and grace of Italy alone, the natural stamp of the land which has the singular privilege of making one love her unsanctified beauty all but as well as those features of one’s own country toward which nature’s small allowance doubles that of one’s own affection† (p. 166). In comparing American and Italian cuisine, the author recollects Grotta Ferrata, a rather insignificant and unkempt village, yet al fresco food for its fair â€Å"couldn’t fail to suggest romantic analogies to a pilgrim from the land of no cooks† (James 1995; cited in Collister 2004, p. 95). When James expresses dissatisfaction with new developments in the centre of Florence, he thinks of America again, fearful of the ancient city being disfigured â€Å"under the treatment of enterprising syndics, into an ungirdled organism of the type, as they viciously say, of Chicago† (James 2008, p. 257). Ev en in term of attitudes, James (2008) appreciates the fact that Italians are more down-to-earth and relaxed than his fellow men when he fears that a day may come when people â€Å"rush about Venice as furiously as people rush about New York† (p. 57). Thus, while modernity and speed become synonymous with the New World, James’s observations unmistakably point to â€Å"cultural wrong-headedness and impoverishment of the America† (Collister 2004, p. 196). At the same time, Italy is to James â€Å"literally picturesque real life composes itself into art at every turn† (Collister 2002, p. 340). Constant reminiscences of the New World serve several particular functions in James’s writing. First of all, it appears to be symbolic of his attempts to establish an emotional connection with his readers and – through his personal perspective – to help establish a connection between his readers and Italy. This device is frequently employed in travel literature: the reader can feel overwhelmed with descriptions of faraway places and strange cultures that bear no resemblance to their own; it is therefore the role of a writer to create a minimum level of comfort by recalling familiar places and phenomena. In such a way, readers can comprehend the mode of life in distant lands building on their own experience in their home countries. On the other hand, such reminiscences serve another purpose, as Manolescu-Oancea (2010) argues: James’s constant references to America and to his Americanness introduce a special kind of alienated perspective, both geographical and temporal, which is decidedly American in outlook† (para. 20). James’s fascination with Italy has been enduring, yet there were moments in his life when the writer has expressed a significant degree of dissatisfaction with living conditions there. Rome is the city that has come is for the most criticism in his private letters; in one of them he even writes the following: â€Å"I feel that I shouldnt care if I never saw the perverted place again† (James 1907; cited in Lubbock 2008, p. 2). This perhaps can be attributed to the fact that his brother, William, has contracted malaria while in Rome and had to move southwards to Florence to improve his health (Gale 1959). It is indeed interesting to observe how both James’s life and writings create a rather accurate account of what it was like to live in Italy at the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century. James’s Italian Hours is one among many other literary travelogues of Italy; Sterne’s Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy (1768) and Dick ens’ Pictures from Italy (1845) are perhaps the most known of them. What distinguishes Italian Hours, however, is that it â€Å"follows no chronology and even the geographical ordering – much dwelling upon Venice and a movement southwards as far as Naples with a return to Tuscany – is (unlike Goethe’s Italienische Reise) arbitrary† (Collister 2004, p. 194). At the same time, the peculiarity of the narrator’s style gives a powerful and overarching sense of organization to this seemingly odd collection of stories.

Discretion in Law Enforcement

Discretion in Law Enforcement The Use of Law Enforcements Discretion Discretion is the ability to change from a previous set plan, rule, or action. It is used in many peoples work and personal life every day. In law enforcement, it allows them to add to the many tools already provided to ensure that all people receive the best possible service. Discretion is and always will be up to the person and is not a mandatory resource. This paper describes police discretion, and the various control mechanisms available i.e., internal control mechanisms control by the citizens, legislative control, and control by the courts. Many factors and characteristics are also the reasons why some police use discretion. The paper will summarize who and what contributes to the use of discretion while explaining why and when law enforcement is able to use it. Discretion is not about right or wrong, but using their discretion with honesty and without discrimination. Discretion is a choice to find an alternative to actions, rules, regulations, laws and even procedures. Its action is necessary because, there are times when the best choice is not the one that is written in black and white. When it comes to law enforcement, the use of discretion is determined by the incident and who is involved. Discretion is a necessary tool because criminal justice personnel will come into contact with different people in different situations. Many of those times, there will be actions or a situation that they have never heard of and for this, the rules, laws, and guidelines that are written need not be followed because of factors involved. Also, there are too many of these rules, laws and guidelines to apply to the situation. Discretion cannot be taken lightly because the end result may hurt someone In the beginning, there first has to be an understanding of discretion. Discretion is an action in which someone does not necessarily follow what was given to them. It is used by organizations every day because the right way is not always the best way. Law enforcement has the ability to use discretion constantly. It allows them to make judgment calls in almost every situation that they are involved in. Discretion is not necessarily considered acceptable or unacceptable; it is about taking factors from an incident or situation and making the best decision. Let us take a look at state police on the highway checking for speeders. The officer stopped five vehicles and gave a ticket to only one. There were many factors the officer took into consideration when deciding if and which person he stopped would get a ticket. How far over the speed limit was the person going, was the person weaving in and out of traffic, what was the cause for the speeding, or was the situation too dangerous not to go unpunished. Discretion is a good tool for law enforcement as it allows officers to help the court system. The officer is the one in the criminal justice system who determines if people gets a ticket (traffic incidents) or are arrested (for minor offenses). This is because they are the first point of contact in most situations with the citizens that they serve. Lower level law enforcement are the ones out in the field patrolling the neighborhood, they make the traffic stops, and they are the one that communicate the most with society. Because of this, law enforcement gets to know the people. Officers also learn their habits, know about their family and at times, even know of any personal problems citizens may have. With all of this knowledge about the community in which law enforcement serves, it is best for them to have and use discretion when necessary. Everyone cannot be treated the same because all situations and problems are not the same. Dealing with so many different individual cases, it b ecomes recognized that law enforcement officers could not always strictly follow all rules and regulations as stipulated by law. (Halliday, 3) Every day, depending on the situations, law enforcement has to use their discretion. It may be whether to pull their weapon, whether to pull the trigger on that weapon, whether to pull over someone for speeding or even whether to arrest a person. The decisions, to take such actions, take a lot of consideration on the part of law enforcement. There are also many factors to take into consideration. Not only about the community and what is going on with them but, also the officer and what type of day he may be having. Officers have bad days just like everyone else and that may be a factor in the choices they make. In the case of law enforcement pulling their weapon, the person, they are confronting, may have a weapon but is not confronting them. They would have the discretion to talk to the person into putting down the weapon or possibly using a stun gun. Discretion is about making the right decision in the right situation. Sometimes when making what is thought to be the right decision would come back and hurt the officer or even someone else in the end. In some situations, discretion is hard because it is not only about the officer but others who may be involved. In this case, the person just needed to get some mental health help and the officer was aware of that. There are many controls mechanisms and types of police discretion. The administrative control, which is the one that comes from the department, are the rules and regulation put out by those in charge. Administrative control is also about the number of officers in the department and where they will be assigned. It involves the department putting the best people in the best officers in respective areas to serve and protect. What if law enforcement administration at one time used their discretion to place all Black law enforcement personnel in the impoverished area because that is where most of the Blacks lived, it is not necessarily a good idea. When law enforcement administration puts only one type of person in an area, they not only are stereotyping, but the fail to give the officer and the community a chance to expand their knowledge of different cultures. Administrative control is also about the use of an officers discretion. There may be the need for the administration to take act ion because discretion used by law enforcement was not used properly or was of an illegal nature. For this, disciplinary actions or extra training may be required. It is just explain to those who did wrong the proper way of doing things. If it is training, the administration and others could run through scenarios. This would put them in a more realistic situation while critiquing each step of the way. Administrative control is also when budgeting for in the department falls. If there is not enough money to hire, many officers will be affected. Officers will have to work longer hours for less money. The vehicles will not be maintained causing fewer officers on the streets. The officers on the streets also will ponder how to get the job done causing issues with safety. This type of control gives forces law enforcement to make choices they otherwise would not make or even cause them to be hurt because the job has to be done. There is also the external control to the use of discretion by law enforcement. This includes controls by citizens, legislative controls, and the control by courts. The control by citizens pertains to the citizen review board. Here, the citizens voice their opinion about the conduct of an officer. This is a way to maintain discipline of those who serve the community and make a resolution of complaints. In order for the citizen review board to work, there must be the right people in the position and also resources to help them out. Without the necessary tools, it would most likely fail. The citizen review board cannot function alone and need constant feedback from both the community and the law enforcement administration. Someone will set policy for the police department so that some laws are enforced passively and others actively, the legislatures by default allow these legislative decisions to be made by the police. (Tieger, 721) This is where the legislative control comes into play. This control is about laws and how much discretion is given to law enforcement. An example of this is when a procedure is no longer used by law enforcement because of the many serious injuries to suspects. When taking down a suspect, an officer used that particular procedure, even though the officer was well aware that the procedure was no longer to be used. He used his discretion to use that procedure because it was the only way to subdue the suspect. Even though there ae legislative controls, they are also limited because how a law is written. An example is when it comes to domestic abuse. While a law is written to explain who and when someone should be arrested in the case of domestic abuse, the discretion to follow the law comes during investigation because law enforcement has a problem with probable cause and determining the aggressor. (Gaines Kappeler, 256) The discretion is to either arrest because of the law even if it is the wrong person or arrest no one. When using discretion, law enforcement has to be flexible and enlightened in order to determine the legally responsible party of the illegal offense. The law of the offense cannot be followed because it would be too strong and it is sometimes better not to give justice. When thinking about the action of justice, there become concerns about who the justice comes to and does not come to. With legislative control comes political influence. Just because laws are made, it does not mean that politicians have the right to influence and push them on law enforcement. Law enforcement must be protected from these actions and allowed to do their job with the best of their ability and with the knowledge and training. Political pressure will cause so me to rebel which would then cause turmoil in the department. When arrest decisions become based upon personal judgments, there is a real potential for arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement of the law. (Wortly, 3) A great example is when the child of law enforcement is involved in a felony offense. They know about it and does not do anything or even turn their child in. But, if it was another persons child, even their friends, they would arrest and take that child into custody. This is unfair justice discretion. What makes their child any different than someone else? This type of discretion could possibly lead to other types of corruption which should not be allowed in law enforcement. Law enforcement is held to a higher standard than the ordinary man which means that their family should be held responsible just like the ordinary person when a serious offense has occurred. Control by the courts is necessary as they are the highest law of the land. What the court has put out are basically guidelines to be followed. One true law or rule is when the Miranda Warning must be administered. This is necessary when questioning is to be done and is necessary just in case the information given has to be used in court. Administering the Miranda warning not only protects the officer but also the suspect. It protects the officer by allowing them to ask any question they may need for a case. It protects the suspect because they do not have to answer and could stop answering their question at any time. While there are different mechanisms to control discretion used by law enforcement, there is also different styles that are distinguished by certain actions the officer may or may not perform. Wortley wrote of the policing styles and how it plays a role in the use of discretion. The service style is about community policing and how it does not take an arrest to solve an issue. In the watchman style, it is about keeping thing under control and in order. Law enforcement will get into it with offenders if they had to but prefer to keep it simple and allow them to settle down. There is then the legalistic style where the person goes to jail regardless of the seriousness of the offense and the offender. Discretion is purposeful and essential when it comes to crime control. Crime control cannot be effectively achieved through the enactment of laws unless the public supports sufficient police discretion in the enforcement of criminal laws. (Cihan Wells, 349) If the society and the community are not willing to help out, then law enforcement is not able to do their job. This is where they use discretion in investigation of criminal activity. There is discretion in the questions asked about the incident and who the questions will be asked to. There is discretion in what age the person should be when they are looking for suspects. As children see and remember almost everything, law enforcement knows that the articulating skill of a child is not the best so they will have to use great discretion to get the information. Law enforcement also must use discretion in what information to use because children can also be talkative at times. While police discretion is seen as inevitable and essential, there remains an underlying fear that its exercise may lead to arbitrary, corrupt or unethical behavior. (Bronitt Stenning, 319) Not using discretion properly could cause corruption in law enforcement. This action could not only hurt the department, but also the officer (s) involved. Too much discretion given to certain situations could give the impression that law enforcement is biased. This issue could cause a problem in the community which could then cause problems in the department. When the community is not happy because of the way law enforcement is performing their duties, it could cause many problems such as distrust. Another problem with possibly not using discretion comes when the administration puts only certain officers in certain areas. Lets look at Black officers working in the most impoverished part of a town. Administration thought this would be best because they think that only Black people live in these t ypes of area. This could cause a problem as there are many officers that may have grown up in the same area and they are just as knowledgeable about the people in the impoverished area. Using discretion not the mix the cultures within the department, in the different areas of town deprives everyone. The department, as well as the officer, does not learn about the community, businesses or people and vice versa. Discretion is empowered to law enforcement by the selective enforcement of the penal code. (Wortley, 3) This action happens from the time law enforcement comes into contact with a person until the time they are allowed to leave or are arrested. When an officer uses discretion during an incident, they more or less give the sentence. Whether it is taking someone to jail, giving them a ticket or just letting to go after a conversation, it is up to the officer. Law enforcement does not do this just after talking to a person. They take into consideration many factors such as the attitude the person has, if a person has had previous run-ins with the law, or if the person is wanted. Discretion is about making the best decision for the person and law enforcement at that time. Many times when an alleged suspect has an attitude and presents that to law enforcement, law enforcement will in turn have an attitude with that person. It shows that the nicer, you are, can help you get a better decisi on from what is intended. When it comes to being known by law enforcement because of the times they have stopped you, law enforcement used previous incident to do it again Even though it may seem biased, many discretions used by law enforcement is necessary to stop crime. Law enforcement is out in the community constantly and knows who does the crime and what type of crime. Law enforcement, most of the time is trying to stop it before it even starts. In conclusion, there are several explanations to discretion but it is basically a persons choice of an alternative to rules or regulations. When it comes to law enforcement, they use discretion constantly. In the understanding of discretion it should be known that it is not mandatory to be used as well as different factors and characteristics that are involved when law enforcement uses it to give a warrant, citation or just let a person walk away. Discretion is not something that is actually written in stone. Discretion of the actions from law enforcement comes from actions, attitudes, and any other previous information as well as the people involved. It is just a way for law enforcement to make a judgment on the outcome of the issues in a community. The discretion that law enforcement uses could be beneficial to the citizens of the community as well as the department. When using discretion wisely, law enforcement and the community get to know each other. Using discretion could also cut down on the time it takes up in the court system. As long as law enforcement uses discretion properly and honestly, they cannot get into trouble for being biased. Discretion is useful and necessary because all incidents with law enforcement do not need to see the inside of the court. There are several controls mechanisms to discretion such as internal, citizens, legislative and courts. There are also several styles that are distinguished by the actions law enforcement performs. Discretion is a unique choice to give people because it could make their work place and life easier. References Alpert, G. P., Dunham, R. G., Stroshine, M., Bennett. K., MacDonald, J. (2004). Police Officers decision making and discretion: Forming suspicion and making a stop. Retrieved from: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/213004.pdf. Bronitt, S. Stenning, P. (2011). Understanding discretion in modern policing. Retrieved from: http://www98.griffith.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/handle/10072/44249/76896_1.pdf?sequence=1. Cihan, A. Wells, W. (2010). Citizens opinions about police discretion in criminal investigations. College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. Retrieved from: http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/docview/868913488/fulltextPDF?accountid=8289. Gaines, L. K. Kappeler, V. E. (2011). Policing in America (7th ed.). Waltham, MA Anderson Publishing, Elsevier, Inc. Tieger, J. H. (n. d.). Police discretion and discriminatory enforcement. Retrieved from: http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2345context=dlj. Wortley, R. (2003). Measuring police attitudes towards discretion. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30,538-558. Retrieved from: http://cjb.sagepub.com.ezproxy2.apus.edu/content/30/5/538.full.pdf+ht.